Historical Cancer Highlights

Cancer is an OLD disease! Even the dinosaurs were not free of cancer.

Cancer can be traced all the way back to some of the very first vertebrate animals - fish living in the Carboniferous period.1 In 2020, a group of researchers using computed tomography (CT) was able to confirm the first case of osteosarcomaCancer of the bone. Osteosarcomas are derived from osteoblasts, cells that line the outside of bones. It is most common among children and young adults and affects males more than females. in a dinosaur. The cancer was found in a bone from a plant-eating dinosaur (Centrosaurus apertus; skull shown in the image) that lived about 76 million years ago. The animal suffered from the aggressive bone cancer, but it is not believed that the cancer killed this particular dinosaur.2

While it is often thought of as a modern disease, it is clear that cancer has been plaguing humans and their ancestors since the beginning of humankind. 

One of the oldest known cancers affecting a hominin is the osteosarcomaCancer of the bone. Osteosarcomas are derived from osteoblasts, cells that line the outside of bones. It is most common among children and young adults and affects males more than females. shown above. Osteosarcoma is a type of bone cancer. It is shown growing on the the 5th metatarsal (a bone in the foot) of a human ancestor who lived about 1.7 million years ago. The bone was found in the Swartkans cave in South Africa.1

There is also evidence for an even older but non-cancerous tumor found in hominins. The skeleton of a young male Australopithecus sediba from Malapa, South Africa showed evidence of a tumor in his sixth thoracic vertebra.2 This growth is thought to have arisen almost 2 million years ago. Based on the characteristics of the growth and the patient, the tumor is thought to most likely be osteoid osteoma, a benignA growth that does not leave its site of origin or invade surrounding tissue. Benign growths can get large and are capable of causing illness or even death, depending on the location of the growth. Technically, benign growths are not cancer. bone-forming tumor that more commonly affects males and those in their 20s.

In 2015, researchers found what is believed to be the oldest known case of cancer in humans.  The cancer, leukemiaA cancer affecting the cells that develop into white or red blood cells. Both of these cell types originate from stem cells in bone marrow. Red blood cells function to carry oxygen to our tissues and the white cells (leukocytes) are part of our immune system. The cancerous cells often accumulate in the blood., was identified in the skeletal remains of a woman who lived near present-day Stuttgart-Mühlhausen (Germany).1

Image credit: By See Source - A Surprising New Path to Tumor Development. PLoS Biol 3/12/2005: e433 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030433, CC BY 2.5

Signs of cancer are found on the bones of mummies from ancient Egypt and Peru dating back as far as 3000 BC. 1

The Edwin Smith Papyrus, which is the oldest written description of cancer known to exist, describes eight cases of breast tumors or ulcers in Egypt that were treated with cauterization. However, the document also states that there is no treatment for cancer. The original document, written in 3000 BC, was acquired in 1862 by Edwin Smith at Luxor, Egypt.2, 3, 4

Known today as the father of medicine, proposed the Humoral Theory of Medicine, which states that the body is composed of four fluids, or humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Any imbalance of these fluids was thought to cause disease. He attributed cancer to an excess of black bile. Hippocrates was the first to use the words "carcinos" and "carcinomaCancer of epithelial cells, the cells that cover the outside and inside of body surfaces. This is the most common form of cancer." to describe tumors, and hence the term "cancer" was coined. "Cancer" is derived from the Greek word "karkinos," or crab, which is thought to reference the appearance of blood vessels on tumors resembling a crab's claws reaching out. He believed that it was best to leave cancer alone because those who got treatment didn't survive as long.1, 2, 3

Galen was a Roman physician and a believer in the Humoral Theory of Medicine proposed by Hippocrates. He believed cancer to be curable in early stages, and that advanced tumors should be operated upon either by cutting around the affected area or by cauterization. Galen thought unhealthy diet and bad climate were directly connected to cancer.1, 2

Paul of Aegina was one of the most prominent Byzantine physicians He wrote a seven volume Epitome of Medicine. In his opinion, cancer of the breast and uterus were the most common. In the sixth book of the Epitome, exclusively to do with surgery, he asserted that surgery on uterine cancer was useless. For breast cancer, he recommended removal as opposed to cauterization.1, 2

Moses Maimonides was a prominent physician, scientist, and philosopher, wrote ten medical treatises. His fifth treatise contains surgical aphorisms, some of which pertain to his treatment of cancer. His treatment of large tumors, as he wrote, involves "excis[ing] the tumor and uproots the entire tumor and its surroundings up to the point of healthy tissue, except if the tumor contains large vessels & [or] the tumor happens to be situated in close proximity to any major organ, excision is dangerous."1, 2

Ramazzini noticed the virtual absence of cervical cancer among nuns, and the high incidence of breast cancer within the same population. He concluded that this difference must be due to their different lifestyle, namely their abstinence. This observation lead the way to discovering the importance of hormonal factors in cancer.  His work is a very early example of an epidemiological study.  He is also known as the 'father' of occupational health for authoring his most well known work - De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (Diseases of Workers).1

John Hunter was a supporter of Stahl and Hofman's lymph theory of cancer; cancer is composed of fermenting lymph of differing pH and density. He believed that cancers could be removed if they had not yet spread to nearby tissues.1

Giovanni Morgagni began performing autopsies to relate illness to pathological findings,. This helped to set a foundation for the study of cancer.

John Hill was the first to recognize the dangers of tobacco use, published "Cautions Against the Immoderate Use of Snuff."1, 2

Percival Pott showed that chimney sweeps had an occupation-related cancer risk. Soot that collected under their scrotum was associated with scrotal cancer. This discovery lead to additional studies which identified other occupational cancer risks. The identification of these risks allowed public health measures to be taken.1, 2

Joseph Claude Anthelm Recamier recognizes the spread of cancer, he coins the term metastasis. The Greeks used the term metastasis to mean "removal from one place to another."

This is an important finding because it is now estimated that metastasis causes about 90% of all cancer deaths.1

Johannes Muller, a German pathologist, published ¿ber den feineren Bau und die Formen der krankhaften Geschw¿lste (On the Nature and Structural Characteristics of Cancer, and of Those Morbid Growths Which May Be Confounded with It), which began to establish pathological histology as an independent branch of science. He demonstrated that cancer is made up of cells, although he thought that cancer cells arose from abnormal cells. He believed that cancer cells came from 'blastema' (the undifferentiated tissue from which it was believed that cells arose from) between normal tissues.1, 2

The first description of malignantA tumor that has invaded neighboring tissue. cells in the sputum was reported by W.H. Washe. 1 Sputum tests are now performed to screen for lung cancer.

Rudolf Virchow was a student of Muller'. He wrote several papers and a three volume work, Die Krankhaften Geschw Lste, on malignantA tumor that has invaded neighboring tissue. tumors. He theorized that tumors were the result of chronic irritation and that cancer spread in a manner similar to liquid.1, 2

German surgeon Theodore Billroth performs the first pyloric resection (surgical removal of part or all of the stomach) to treat stomach cancer. Billroth was also the first (in 1872) to remove an esophagus as a cancer treatment.1, 2

The first gastroscope, an instrument inserted down the esophagus and used to view and detect cancer in the lower esophagus and stomach, was created by Jan Mikulicz-Radecki.1

Stephen Paget proposed his "seed and soil" theory of cancer. He analyzed over 1000 autopsy records of women who had breast cancer and found that the patterns of metastasis were not random. Thus, he proposed that tumor cells (the seeds) have a specific affinity for specific organs (the soil), and metastasis would only result if the seed and soil were compatible.1, 2

William Stewart Halsted, who was the first Professor of Surgery at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Yale, performed the first radical mastectomy (removal of the entire breast, the muscles in the front of the chest, and the lymphatic systemA large network of vessels that carry fluid and cells of the immune system around the body. Lymph nodes are regional collection centers in the lymphatic system. Fluid from the areas surrounding the lymph nodes drains into the lymph nodes. Cells from Tumor cells may break away from the primary tumor and be carried to a nearby lymph node. The lymphatic system is a primary mechanism for tumors to move, or metastasize, to other parts of the body. of the breast) to treat breast cancer.1, 2

The first cystoscope, an instrument that is inserted through the urethra and used to detect cancer of the bladder, was created by Maximilian Carl Friedrich Nitze. 1

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovers x-rays. This discovery is thought of as one of the greatest technological accomplishments of all time. It made a huge impact on cancer detection and treatment.

Four years later (1899) Tage Anton Ultimus Sjogren successfully treats cancer with x-rays.1

The newly discovered X-ray radiograph, or Roentgen picture (named after its discoverer, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen), was used by Franz Konig, a German surgeon to picture an amputated leg which was determined to contain a sarcomaA malignant cancer that originates in bone, muscle or connective tissues. of the tibia.1, 2 The X-ray quickly became a tool for visualizing and diagnosing tumors inside the body. In 1901, Röntgen won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on X-rays.

Bronchoscopy was introduced by Gustav Killian when he removed a piece of pork bone from the bronchus of a farmer. Inspired by his report, Chevalier Jackson constructed the first bronchoscope soon after.1, 2

The first electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) reading was taken by Willem Einthoven using a string galvanometer that he designed himself.1 ECGs can be used to diagnose some cases of kidney (renal) cancer.

A primitive form of intravenous/excretory urography, a procedure used to visualize the upper urinary tract (by injection of contrast material) and diagnose cancer of the bladder, was developed by Fritz Voelcker and Alexander von Lichtenberg.1

Francis Peyton Rous provides scientific backing to the Viral Theory of Cancer by injecting chickens with cell free liquids obtained from chicken sarcomas and observing the formation of sarcomas in the injected hens. The virusThe smallest type of organism known. A single virus particle (called a virion) is much smaller than a cell. Viruses reproduce by invading cells and forcing the cells to make progeny virions. Viruses generally have specific host cells which they infect. Some virus types are associated with specific cancers and can convert normal cells into cancer cells. Examples of viruses associated with cancer are: papillomavirus-cervical cancer, hepatitis virus-liver cancer, Epstein-Barr virus-Burkitt's lymphoma. Virus-induced transformation of cells was one of the very first model systems for the study of cancer. Viruses have also been a key tool in the identification of many oncogenes. Because of their great ability to enter target cells viruses such as adenoviruses are being examined for their ability to deliver genes to cancer cells. is named Rous sarcomaA malignant cancer that originates in bone, muscle or connective tissues. virus.

This was the first demonstration of an oncogenic virus and would lead to the discovery of the first oncogeneA defective gene that is involved in triggering cancer cell growth. Oncogenes are altered forms of genes that normally are involved stimulating cell division. These normal genes are mutated and function in an inappropriate manner in cancer cells. An analogy would be that a mutated oncogene is like a car's gas pedal stuck in the on position. All forms of cancer have one or more mutant oncogenes. Examples of oncogenes that are altered in many cancers are myc, ras and Her-2/neu. Contrast with 'tumor suppressor'., src.

The human papillomavirus is now considered to be the underlying cause of cervical cancer in humans.1

Theodor Boveri proposes the Somatic MutationA mutation that occurs in a typical body cell such as those that make up our skin or organs. These mutations are not transmitted to offspring. Somatic mutations can be contrasted with germ line mutations that occur in the cells destined to become our gametes, sperm or egg. Mutations in germ cells may be transmitted to offspring. Hereditary forms of cancer are passed to the offspring via gametes and sporadic forms of cancer arise via somatic mutations. It is possible that the same cancer type can arise in either way. Theory of Cancer. He believed that cancer was caused by abnormal chromosomes.

Boveri was on to something when he proposed this theory. It is now known that many things lead to the development of cancer, but genetic instability is at the root of cancer.1

Cancer is induced in laboratory animals for the first time at Tokyo University, by applying coal tar onto the skin of rabbits, leading the way for current cancer research methods. This forever changed the way cancer is studied.1

The first colposcope, and instrument that is inserted into the vagina and used to view and detect cancer of the vagina and cervix, was created by Hans Peter Hinselmann.1

The first human arteriogram was performed by Egaz Moniz, who developed arteriography, in part, to localize cerebral tumors.1

The use of x-rays for diagnostic examination of the breast was introduced in by Stafford Warren. His technique involved the patient lying on her side with her arm raised and having the picture taken from the side.1

Evarts Ambrose Graham and Jacob Jesse Singer successfully remove a lung from a patient with lung cancer. This was the first time a patient underwent a one-stage pneumonectomy (removal of part of or entire lung) and survived. The accomplishment cemented Graham's place in history.1, 2

Charles Brendon Huggins discovers hormones are necessary for the growth of certain cancers through his research on androgen levels and prostate cancer in dogs. This lays the groundwork for hormoneA chemical produced by cells that alters the activity of other cells. The chemicals may be lipids, such as testosterone and estrogen or proteins like insulin. Hormones may act at locations far from their site of origin. Estrogen, for example, is produced primarily by cells in the ovaries but acts on cells in the breast and elsewhere. therapy for certain cancers.1, 2

The Pap smear was introduced as a method of diagnosing carcinomas in the female genital tract by George Papanicolaou.1

Ultrasound imaging was used for the first time for medical diagnostics, specifically the identification of intracranial tumors, by Karl and Friederich Dussik. 1

Urinary cytology, the examination of cells and other materials in urine, was used by George N. Papinicolaou and Victor F. Marshall to diagnose cancer of the bladder. 1

Louis Goodman discovers nitrogen mustards can be used in the treatment of cancer. Goodman studied chemical warfare agents during WWII and published a paper reporting the use of nitrogen mustards as the first chemotherapeutic agents against Hodgkin's Disease, lymphosarcoma, and leukemias.1

An early version of the mammogramDiagnostic procedure that involves taking an X-ray of the breasts. Changes due to cancer growth can often be seen in the images produced. More on ths topic can be found in the pages on breast cancer detection., comprised of a cone and compression pad apparatus was created by Raul Leborgne to X-ray the breasts. In the paper reporting the device and its use on several patients, he recommends that "roentgen study should now be included in the diagnosis of mammary pathology." 1

Bone scintigraphy, or photoscanning of the bone with a radioactiveSome elements (atoms) are not stable. The breakdown of these elements leads to the release of energy that is called radiation. The form of the energy (radiation) may differ between different unstable elements. Radiation from the breakdown of radioactive elements is damaging to cells and their genes. Cancer cells do not respond in a normal fashion to DNA damage and may be sensitive to killing by the radiation emitted from radioactive elements. isotope, using Sr was performed as a diagnostic test for spinal metastasesTumor growths located at a location distinct from the initial site of cancer development. See the animation at ' metastasize '. by Gynning et al. 1

The Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT) detects blood in feces. The blood is shed into the colon when feces passes by cancers lining the colon or anus.  The test, is used to screen for colon, rectal and intestinal cancers. It is also able to detect some stomach (gastric) cancers. Often, the blood is not visible to the eye - it is hidden or 'occult' - giving the test its name. The test was developed by Dr. David Greegor.1

The first endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP), an endoscopic procedure used to diagnose cancer in the bile ducts and pancreas, was performed by Dr. William McCune. 1

Retrograde colonoscopy of the entire colon was successfully administered by Dr. William Wolff and his associates.1

President Richard Nixon declares War on Cancer by introducing the National Cancer Act. He says the following during his 1971 State of the Union.

"I will also ask for an appropriation of an extra $100 million to launch an intensive campaign to find a cure for cancer, and I will ask later for whatever additional funds can effectively be used. The time has come in America when the same kind of concentrated effort that split the atom and took man to the moon should be turned toward conquering this dread disease. Let us make a total national commitment to achieve this goal."1, 2

Dr. Judah Folkman publishes a paper proposing angiogenesisThe formation of blood vessels. This process is required for a tumor to grow past a small size since the blood delivers nutrients to the cells in the tumor mass. plays a major role in cancer development. Folkman thought preventing angiogenesis could inhibit tumor growth by starving the tumor of vital nutrients. This theory was originally disregarded by most in the field, but is now fully accepted.

The first naturally occurring angiogenesis inhibitor, thrombospondin, was identified in 1989 by Dr. Noel Bouck. Two more natural inhibitors were discovered by Dr. Michael O'Reilly in Folkman's lab, angiostatin in 1994 and endostatin in 1997.1, 2

A radioimmunoassay made to detect alpha-fetoprotein, a tumor marker often found in higher concentrations in those with liver and testicular cancer, was created for screening purposes by Ruoslahti and Seppala.1

The computerized tomography (CT) scan was created by Godfrey Hounsfield. CT utilizes X-rays and computer assisted analysis to generate images that represent 'slices' or cross-sections through the target organ(s). CT scans are used to diagnose several different cancers. 1

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRIAlso: nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMR). Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a non-invasive imaging procedure that utilizes strong magnets and radio waves to visualize tissues. Subtle differences in the ways that the tissues and organs absorb and reflect the waves enable the detection of many different disorders.) is based on signals obtained from different tissue types when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field. The signals are used to create digital images of the body. MRI is used to diagnose several different cancers and many other medical conditions. They were developed by Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield. 1, 2 In 2003 the developers won the Nobel prize in medicine for their work.3

The first human positronan elementary subatomic particle with mass equal to that of the electron and with a positive charge equal to the magnitude of the electron's negative charge. emission tomography (PET) scanner, an instrument which creates high resolution computerized images was built by Michael Phelps and Ed Hoffman. PET imaging is based on the detection of radiationIn cancer biology: A cancer treatment in which high energy beams are used to kill cancer cells. Radiation can also cause genetic damage that can lead to cancer. As an example, skin cancer is believed to be greatly increased by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. that is released from chemicals introduced into the body. CT and MRIAlso: nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMR). Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a non-invasive imaging procedure that utilizes strong magnets and radio waves to visualize tissues. Subtle differences in the ways that the tissues and organs absorb and reflect the waves enable the detection of many different disorders. create good images of anatomical structures they do not provide information about the biological activity (i.e. cell growth) of the imaged area.

PET provides information about the biochemical activity of the observed structures. This allows for the discrimination between objects that are non-living such as a scar from growing cells such as those in a tumor.1

1976 - Harold E. Varmus and J. Michael Bishop discovers the first cellular oncogeneA defective gene that is involved in triggering cancer cell growth. Oncogenes are altered forms of genes that normally are involved stimulating cell division. These normal genes are mutated and function in an inappropriate manner in cancer cells. An analogy would be that a mutated oncogene is like a car's gas pedal stuck in the on position. All forms of cancer have one or more mutant oncogenes. Examples of oncogenes that are altered in many cancers are myc, ras and Her-2/neu. Contrast with 'tumor suppressor'., src. This is the same geneA stretch of DNA that leads to the production of an RNA. The RNA is produced during the process of transcription. This RNA can be used to guide the formation of a protein via translation or can be used directly in the cell. carried by the virusThe smallest type of organism known. A single virus particle (called a virion) is much smaller than a cell. Viruses reproduce by invading cells and forcing the cells to make progeny virions. Viruses generally have specific host cells which they infect. Some virus types are associated with specific cancers and can convert normal cells into cancer cells. Examples of viruses associated with cancer are: papillomavirus-cervical cancer, hepatitis virus-liver cancer, Epstein-Barr virus-Burkitt's lymphoma. Virus-induced transformation of cells was one of the very first model systems for the study of cancer. Viruses have also been a key tool in the identification of many oncogenes. Because of their great ability to enter target cells viruses such as adenoviruses are being examined for their ability to deliver genes to cancer cells. originally described by Peyton Rous.

1986 - Stephen H. Friend et al. isolates the first tumor suppressorA gene that functions in the control of cell division. Tumor suppressors normally work to limit cell division and may be contrasted with oncogenes. gene, RbA tumor suppressor. The Rb gene is mutated in many different cancers but was initially described due to its role in the development of an eye cancer, retinoblastoma, which usually strikes young children. The protein product of the gene is a transcription factor that controls the expression of genes important in driving cells into the division process. (for retinoblastoma). This gene was also one of the first associated with an inherited (familial) form of cancer.1, 2

Prostate-specific  antigenAny substance capable of being recognized by the immune system. Recognition of such a substance leads to the generation of an immune response. (PSA) is a proteinOne of the four basic types of biomolecule. Proteins are polymers made up of strings of amino acids. Proteins serve many functions in organisms including transport of molecules, structure, cell adhesion and as signaling molecules such as hormones. Many transcription factors, including p53 and Rb are proteins. produced and secreted by prostate cells. The protein is a tumor marker that is frequently be found at higher concentrations in the blood of those with prostate cancer. It was created as a possible diagnostic method for prostate cancer by Kuriyama et al.1 The use of PSA tests to screen normal men for prostate cancer is controversial for several reasons. Some prostate cancers do not produce the protein and would be missed. PSA levels can also increase in the blood when cancer is not present  (i.e. as a response to infection or inflammationA reaction to tissue damage or invasion. Small blood vessels become leaky, leading to redness and swelling. Cells of the immune system migrate to the area and can release chemicals and proteins that cause damage to the structures/cells nearby.). Patients with elevated levels of PSA under these circumstances could be subjected to unnecessary medical tests and stress.

Robert Bast and his laboratory developed an antibodyAntibody molecules tightly bind to their targets (usually proteins) with great specificity. Antibody binding alerts the immune system to target the bound molecule for destruction. Specific antibodies can be made in the laboratory. -based test (immunoassay) to detect a proteinOne of the four basic types of biomolecule. Proteins are polymers made up of strings of amino acids. Proteins serve many functions in organisms including transport of molecules, structure, cell adhesion and as signaling molecules such as hormones. Many transcription factors, including p53 and Rb are proteins. that can be detected in the serum of human blood. The protein - cancer antigenAny substance capable of being recognized by the immune system. Recognition of such a substance leads to the generation of an immune response. 125 or CA-125A glycoprotein secreted by some ovarian cancers into the bloodstream. The protein can be detected in the blood and is used to monitor the progression of those cancers. CA-125 levels may also rise in response to inflammation even if cancer is not present. - is found at increased levels in the blood of some women who have ovarian cancer.1 The test is used to help diagnose some types of ovarian cancers. It is also used to track the progress of treatment and recurrence of the disease.

Detection of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNAAbbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. Composed of very long strings of nucleotides, which are abbreviated as A, C, G and T. DNA is the storage form of our genetic material. All of the instructions for the production of proteins are encoded in our DNA. in cervical cells as a screening tool for cervical cancer was introduced by Ritter et al.1 The test is very sensitive, and can find infections that would be missed by Pap smears.

In this technique, fluid is used to expand the uterus and an ultrasound probe is inserted into the vagina. Sonohysterography is used in diagnosis of cancer of the endometrium and uterus, and was developed by Drs. Parsons and Lense. 1

The DNAAbbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. Composed of very long strings of nucleotides, which are abbreviated as A, C, G and T. DNA is the storage form of our genetic material. All of the instructions for the production of proteins are encoded in our DNA. microarray chip is constructed to measure gene expressionThe act of transcription and, if needed, translation of a gene. Regulation of gene expression is tightly regulated. Genes must only be expressed in the correct cells, at the right time and in the correct amount. Abnormal gene expression is always found in cancer cells. levels in plants.

This technology has been advanced and is now used to study cancer in humans. Currently 'gene chips' are being investigated as tools in the development of individualized treatment plans.1

Human epithelialA type of tissue (epithelium) that covers our exposed surfaces, such as skin. Also lines our hollow or tube-like organs/tissues such as the digestive tract. Since these tissues are often exposed to environmental insults such as chemicals and solar radiation and are often divide rapidly to replace lost cells, many cancers arise in epithelial tissues. and fibroblast cells are transformed into tumor cells for the first time in a laboratory. This was accomplished by the coexpression of telomeraseAn enzyme that functions to replace the ends of chromosomes. Normally, during DNA replication, chromosome ends are shortened by a small amount. Telomerase is turned off in most adult tissues, a process that limits the number of cell divisions that can be completed by those cells. In cancer cells, telomerase is often reactivated, allowing the cells to divide indefinitely. (hTERT), the simian virusThe smallest type of organism known. A single virus particle (called a virion) is much smaller than a cell. Viruses reproduce by invading cells and forcing the cells to make progeny virions. Viruses generally have specific host cells which they infect. Some virus types are associated with specific cancers and can convert normal cells into cancer cells. Examples of viruses associated with cancer are: papillomavirus-cervical cancer, hepatitis virus-liver cancer, Epstein-Barr virus-Burkitt's lymphoma. Virus-induced transformation of cells was one of the very first model systems for the study of cancer. Viruses have also been a key tool in the identification of many oncogenes. Because of their great ability to enter target cells viruses such as adenoviruses are being examined for their ability to deliver genes to cancer cells. 40 large-T oncoprotein, and an oncogenic alleleDifferent versions of the same gene are called alleles. Humans have two copies of most genes because one copy is inherited from each parent. of H-RASA proto-oncogene that is found to be mutated in many different kinds of cancer. The ras protein is involved in transmitting signals through the cell that drive the cell into the division process..1

The Human GenomeThe full set of genes in an organism. Humans have an estimated 25,000 protein-encoding genes in their genome. Project is completed. The project, started in 1990, identified all the 20,000 - 25,000 genes in human DNAAbbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. Composed of very long strings of nucleotides, which are abbreviated as A, C, G and T. DNA is the storage form of our genetic material. All of the instructions for the production of proteins are encoded in our DNA. and determined the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA.

The information gained from the human genome project may lead to revolutionary new ways to diagnose, treat, and prevent thousands of disorders; including cancer.1, 2

The FDA approves Gardasil, a vaccine that protects against human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is known to be the major cause of cervical cancer.1, 2

The first cancer vaccine was approved to prevent cervical cancer